Hybrid Vehicles: and the Future of Personal Transportation

Hybrid Vehicles: and the Future of Personal Transportation

By Allen Fuhs

• Publisher: CRC
• Number Of Pages: 504
• Publication Date: 2008-09-19
• ISBN-10 / ASIN: 1420075349
• ISBN-13 / EAN: 9781420075342
• Binding: Paperback

Product Description:

Uncover the Technology behind Hybrids and Make an Intelligent Decision When Purchasing Your Next Vehicle

With one billion cars expected to be on the roads of the world in the near future, the potential for war over oil and the negative environmental effects of emissions will be greater than ever before. Now is the time to seriously consider an alternative to standard automobiles.

Exploring practical solutions to these problems, Hybrid Vehicles and the Future of Personal Transportation provides broad coverage of the technologies involved in manufacturing and operating hybrids. It reviews key components of hybrid and pure electric vehicles, including batteries, fuel cells, and ultracapacitors. The book also discusses both concept and production-bound hybrids as well as the economics and safety issues of hybrid ownership. In addition, the author supplies effective tips on how to save gasoline with conventional and hybrid automobiles.

Making the jargon of fuel-efficient vehicles accessible to a wide audience, this guide explains the history of hybrids, how they work, and their impact on the environment. It will help you make a sound decision concerning the purchase and operation of a hybrid or electric vehicle.

Contents:

Hybrid Vehicles and the Future of Personal Transportation
Front cover
Title Page
Copyright
Dedication
Contents
Preface
Chapter 1. Historical Roots of Hybrid Automobiles
ANCIENT HISTORY: CROSSROADS
STEAM CARS
Automobile Type Number Limiting Factor for Range
ELECTRIC CARS
GASOLINE CARS
CARRIAGES
CROSSROADS
INVENTION OF HYBRID AUTOMOBILE
Key Feature of Hybrid Woods Gas-Electric Car 2007 Toyota, Ford, Honda
KEY FEATURES OF HYBRID AUTOMOBILE
EARLY HYBRID VEHICLES
Manufacturer or Engineer Country Year
WOODS GAS-ELECTRIC CAR
CONTROL SYSTEMS FOR EARLY HYBRIDS
MODERN PERIOD OF HYBRID HISTORY
HYBRID AUTOMOBILES: STIRRING OF INTEREST IN THE 1990s
GM EV-1 Electric
RENEWED INTEREST IN HYBRIDS
PARTNERSHIP FOR A NEW GENERATION OF VEHICLES
Performance Factor Supercar Hybrid Supercar
CROSSROADS 2008: SNEAK PREVIEW OF THE FUTURE
REFERENCES
ADDITIONAL REFERENCES
Chapter 2. Why the Crisis? Hybrid Vehicles as a Mitigation Measure
INTRODUCTION
STORY
SETTING THE STAGE
DEPLETION OF PETROLEUM
ESTIMATING OIL PRODUCTION
OIL RESERVES AND RESOURCES
DEMAND FOR PETROLEUM
OIL IN THE UNITED STATES
Factor Favorable Unfavorable
HUBBERT’S PEAKING THEORY
SWIMMING POOL MODEL
STANDARD PRESENTATION OF HUBBERT’S CURVES
NEW ANALYTICAL REPRESENTATION
VARIATION OF THE PRODUCTION RATE, r(t)
LIMIT OF P/Q AS TIME APPROACHES NEGATIVE INFINITY
CHARACTERISTIC PRODUCTION TIME, t
P, Billions Barrels/ Q, Billions P/Q, per Hubbert’s Time,
FINDING r0 AND QT
WHEN DO HUBBERT’S CURVES APPLY?
WHEN DO HUBBERT’S CURVES NOT APPLY?
NEAR-TERM SITUATION
TRANSPORTABLE FUELS CRISIS
CURRENT FLEET OF LOW MILES PER GALLON VEHICLES
APPLICATION OF INCREASED ENGINE EFFICIENCY
VEHICLE POWER
VEHICLE WEIGHT
VEHICLE SIZE
VEHICLE POWERTRAIN
OPTIONS AND ACCESSORIES
POSTED SPEED LIMITS
ENERGY CONSERVATION
SUMMARY
REFERENCES
Chapter 3. Overview of Hybrid Vehicles
INTRODUCTION
APPROACHES TO BEAT THE HIGH COST OF GASOLINE
SAVING GASOLINE
HYBRID PERFORMANCE
ALLURE OF PLUG-IN HYBRIDS
CONVERSION OR CLEAN SHEET DESIGN
CONVERSION OR CLEAN SHEET DESIGN: IMPACT ON AWD AND 4WD
CURRENT VIEW ON HYBRIDS
REASONS TO BUY A HYBRID
“MORE PLAYTHINGS THAN YOU”
REASONS NOT TO BUY A HYBRID
DIESEL/ELECTRIC HYBRIDS
ROLE OF DESIGN IN BUYING DECISION
CONCEPT HYBRIDS AND ELECTRIC VEHICLES
DIFFERENT TYPES OF CONCEPT HYBRIDS
AUDI METROPROJECT QUATTRO
BMW CONNECTED DRIVE X5 HYBRID SUV
BMW X6 ACTIVEHYBRID SPORT AWD COUPE
CADILLAC PROVOQ FC HYBRID
CHINESE GAC A-HEV SEDAN
CHINESE GREAT WALL GWKULLA CONCEPT ELECTRIC CAR
CHINESE PLAN 863 FOR HYBRIDS AND ALTERNATE FUELS
CHRYSLER CITADEL
CHRYSLER ECO VOYAGER FCV
CITROËN AIRSCAPE HYBRID
CITROËN4 HYBRID SEDAN
CITROËN C-CACTUS HYBRID SEDAN
DIAHATSU HYBRID VEHICLE SPORTS: SPORTS CAR
DODGE ESX3 PNGV SEDAN
DODGE POWERBOX SUV HYBRID
DODGE ZEO EV
FISKER HYBRID LUXURY SEDAN
FORD EDGE WITH HYSERIES DRIVE
FORD FIESTA HYBRID
FORD FOCUS FCV
FORD FOCUS HYDROGEN–ICE CONVENTIONAL VEHICLE
FORD REFLEX OR REFL3X
FORD HYSERIES EDGE: AN FC/BATTERY PLUG-IN HYBRID
GM CHEVROLET VOLT (CADILLAC VOLT)
GM GRAPHYTE SUV
GM PRECEPT: PRODUCT OF PNGV PROGRAM
GM SEQUEL
GM ULTRALITE: ANOTHER PNGV SUPERCAR
HONDA CLARITY FC HYBRID
HONDA CR-V CROSSOVER HYBRID
HONDA CR-Z HYBRID
HONDA FC HYBRID, FCX
HONDA HYBRID SEDAN
HONDA SMALL HYBRID SPORTS CONCEPT
HONDA PUYO FCV
HYUNDAI I-BLUE FCV
JEEP RENEGADE DIESEL–ELECTRIC HYBRID
KIA FCV
LAND ROVER LRX SUV
LAND ROVER “E” SUV
RANGE ROVER HYBRID
LEXUS LF-Xh
LOREMO DIESEL 2 + 2 SUBCOMPACT
LOREMO DIESEL GT SUBCOMPACT
MAZDA PREMACY HYDROGEN RE HYBRID
MAZDA SENKU HEV SPORTS CAR
MERCEDES BENZ C-CLASS
MERCEDES BENZ F-CLASS HCCI HYBRID
MERCEDES BENZ S-CLASS BLUETEC HYBRID
MERCEDES BENZ S-CLASS DIRECT HYBRID
MERCEDES BENZ VISION GRAND SPORTS TOURER HYBRID
MERCURY META ONE CROSSOVER
MITSUBISHI CONCEPT CT MIEV HYBRID
MITSUBISHI PURE EV
MITSUBISHI IMIEV SPORT PURE EV
NISSAN MIXIM EV
NISSAN PIVO 2
NISSAN TINO HYBRID SEDAN
OPEL (GM) ASTRA DIESEL ELECTRIC
OPEL CORSA HYBRID
OPEL FLEXTREME
PEUGEOT 307 HYBRID SEDAN
PHOENIX ELECTRIC SPORT UTILITY TRUCK
PORSCHE PANAMERA SPORTS SEDAN HYBRID
SATURN VUE GREEN LINE PLUG-IN HYBRID
SUBARU B5-TPH TWO-SEAT GT
SUBARU G4E
SUBARU R1E
SUZUKI KIZASHI 2
SUZUKI TWIN-TURBO
TESLA ELECTRIC SPORTS CAR
TESLA MOTORS BLUE STAR ECONOMY EV
TESLA MOTORS WHITE STAR LUXURY EV
TOYOTA 1/X PLUG-IN HYBRID
TOYOTA A-BAT HYBRID PICKUP
TOYOTA FT-HS SPORTS CAR HYBRID
TOYOTA HI-CT PLUG-IN HYBRID
TOYOTA HYBRID X
VOLKSWAGEN PURE DIESEL “ECORACER”
VOLKSWAGEN SPACE UP! BLUE FC HYBRIDS
VOLKSWAGEN UP! AND SPACE UP! PLUG-IN HYBRIDS
VOLVO 3CC
VOLVO RECHARGE
CONCEPT HYBRIDS ON TWO (OR THREE) WHEELS
SUZUKI CROSSCAGE FC MOTORCYCLE
TWIKE
VECTRIX ELECTRIC MAXI-SCOOTER
YAMAHA LUXAIR MOTORCYCLE HYBRID
PARK THE CAR
INTERCITY CONGESTION FORCES TREND
DESCRIPTION OF A FEW SELECT HYBRIDS
CHEVROLET TAHOE SUV 2008 AND GMC YUKON SUV 2008: FULL DUAL-MODE HYBRID
FORD ESCAPE SUV
Year of Introduction Vehicle
GM CHEVROLET MALIBU MILD HYBRID
GM SATURN VUE GREEN LINE MILD HYBRID SUV
HONDA CIVIC HYBRID 2006
HONDA ACCORD HYBRID 2007
TOYOTA HIGHLANDER SUV/LEXUS RX 400 H
TOYOTA PRIUS I HYBRID SEDAN
TOYOTA PRIUS II HYBRID SEDAN
DISCUSSION OF PRIUS CONFIGURATION
Engine Motor Engine + Motor
Item Prius I Prius II
CHEVROLET SILVERADO MILD HYBRID PICKUP
TOYOTA 2007 CAMRY HYBRID SEDAN
MASS TO POWER RATIO
Automatic
2007 EPA Transmission
Engines Power (hp) City/Highway Gears
Mass to Power t60, 0–60
Hybrid Vehicle Mass (kg) Power (kW) Ratio Time, (s) M/(P t60) kg/kW s
HYBRID TRUCK AND BUS TECHNOLOGY
ECONOMICS OF BUS AND TRUCK
COMPARISON LIFETIMES OR CYCLES OF OPERATION
ATTRACTIVENESS OF SUPERCAPACITOR FOR TRUCKS AND BUSES
Hybrid Vehicle Miles (km) Braking Cycles Charge/Discharge Cycles
DUTY CYCLE AND APPLICATION OF HYBRID
EMISSIONS
FUTURE FOR DIESEL/ELECTRIC HEAVY-DUTY HYBRIDS
ORGANIZATIONS CONSIDERING HYBRID TRUCKS
TRUCK ORIGINAL EQUIPMENT MANUFACTURERS WORKING ON HYBRIDS
CONCEPT AND PRODUCTION HYBRID TRUCKS
FEDEX HYBRID DELIVERY TRUCK
GM/CHRYSLER HYBRID LIGHT TRUCKS
DIAHATSU HYBRID SMALL LIGHT DELIVERY TRUCK
FORD HYTRANS LIGHT COMMERCIAL VEHICLE
DODGE SPRINTER PLUG-IN HYBRID VAN
KALMAR HYBRID TERMINAL TRACTORS
NISSAN CONDOR MEDIUM-SIZE HYBRID TRUCK
HYDROGEN ELECTRIC RACING FEDERATION
PRODUCTION HYBRID BUSES
GILLIG-GMC HYBRID BUS
MERCEDES BENZ HYBRID BUS
MITSUBISHI AEROSTAR HYBRID BUS
ORION VII HYBRID BUS (BAE SYSTEMS)
MILITARY APPLICATIONS OF HYBRIDS
HYBRIDS AND MILITARY INTEREST
DARPA ADVANCED (MILITARY) VEHICLE
SHADOW: A RECONNAISSANCE, SURVEILLANCE, AND TRACKING VEHICLE
PARTING PERSPECTIVE
ALTERNATE VEHICLES
SUMMARY
Alternate Vehicle Mileage (mpg) Chapter
APPENDIX 3.1
REFERENCES
Chapter 4. Hybrid Automobile: What Is It?
HYBRID DEFINITION
NEW IDEA FOR A HYBRID
HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLE
INHERENTLY MORE EXPENSIVE
HYBRIDS: MAINSTREAM OR ON THE FRINGE? SUCCESS OR FAILURE?
HEV PROPULSION DESIGN OPTIONS
HEV PROPULSION DESIGN OPTIONS: SERIES
DISCUSSION OF VARIOUS OPERATING MODES: SERIES
HEV PROPULSION DESIGN OPTIONS: PARALLEL
DISCUSSION OF VARIOUS OPERATING MODES: PARALLEL
COMMENT ON TOYOTA PRIUS
CHOICE OF SERIES, PARALLEL, OR MIXED
TECHNOLOGIES FOR A SUCCESSFUL HYBRID
OPERATION WITH A “DEAD” BATTERY
SUMMARY
Chapter 5. Why Hybrids Get Good Mileage
INTRODUCTION
HYBRID SPECIFIC
HEAVY HITTERS LINEUP
NICKEL AND DIME IMPROVEMENTS
COMMON WITH CVS
SUMMARY
REFERENCES
Chapter 6. Multifaceted Complexity of Batteries
INTRODUCTION
BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE THREE ELECTROCHEMICAL DEVICES
FUNCTION OF THE BATTERY OR CAPACITOR
FUNCTION OF AN FC
ELECTRICAL DEFINITIONS FOR HYBRID VEHICLES
BATTERY AND ELECTRICAL DEFINITIONS
BATTERY CAPACITY
BATTERY PROPERTIES USED TO ASSESS PERFORMANCE
IMPORTANCE OF ENERGY DENSITY AND SPECIFIC ENERGY
ENERGY DENSITY OR ENERGY DENSITY?
BATTERY ELECTROCHEMISTRY
ELECTROCHEMISTRY OF CELLS
ELECTROCHEMISTRY OF EELS
COMPUTATIONAL ELECTROCHEMISTRY
DISCHARGE CHARACTERISTICS
TEMPERATURE SENSITIVITY
SELF-DISCHARGE
PERFORMANCE BOUNDARIES IN A HYBRID OR ELECTRICAL VEHICLE
BATTERY PECULIARITIES
POLARIZATION
NUMBER OF DIFFERENT POSSIBLE CELLS: DIFFERENT CELL CHEMISTRIES
BATTERY DESIGN
BATTERY LIFE
WHAT IS BATTERY FAILURE?
STATE OF CHARGE: RESTRICTIONS AND BATTERY UTILIZATION
DETERMINING ACTUAL SOC AND BATTERY AGING
BATTERY CHARGING AND DISCHARGING
CHARGING RATE
DISCHARGING RATE
THERMAL RUNAWAY
BATTERY DATA
LEAD ACID BATTERY
NICKEL METAL HYDRIDE BATTERY
LITHIUM-ION BATTERY
SAFETY
COST
CALENDAR LIFE
GUIDE TO LONG BATTERY LIFE
ELECTROCHEMISTRY
LITHIUM-ION BATTERY
LIQUID/GEL ELECTROLYTE
SOLID ELECTROLYTE INTERPHASE
TEMPERATURE LIMITS
CHARGE/DISCHARGE CYCLE
LITHIUM-ION ALKALINE BATTERY
ADVANTAGES
DISADVANTAGES
LITHIUM-ION POLYMER BATTERY
ADVANTAGES
DISADVANTAGES
ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY
NANOSTRUCTURE
APPLICATION OF NANOTECHNOLOGY
ADVANCED ANODES (NEGATIVE ELECTRODE UPON DISCHARGE)
ADVANCED CATHODES (POSITIVE ELECTRODE UPON DISCHARGE)
ADVANCED ELECTROLYTES
BATTERY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
APPLICATION OF LITHIUM-ION BATTERY IN HYBRIDS
APPLICATION OF LI-ION BATTERY
APPLICATION OF BATTERIES IN HYBRID AND ELECTRIC VEHICLES
BATTERIES IN SPACECRAFT
PRIUS I BATTERY
NISSAN BATTERY
APPLICATION OF LI-ION BATTERY: TWO APPROACHES
APPLICATION OF LI-ION BATTERY: MITSUBISHI PURE EV
APPLICATION OF LI-ION BATTERY: NISSAN AND NEC
INTERCHANGEABLE POWER PACKS
COMPARISONS FOR DIFFERENT ENERGY STORAGE DEVICES
BATTERY SELECTION
DIRECT EFFECT ON MILES PER GALLON
CUSTOMER SATISFACTION
SAFETY
HYBRID COST ON THE SHOWROOM FLOOR
PERMISSIBLE OPERATING ENVIRONMENT
AVOIDING UNANTICIPATED RECALLS
RECYCLING BATTERIES
COST OF BATTERY
BATTERY PROPERTIES
BATTERY SAFETY
BATTERY EFFICIENCY AND INTERNAL IMPEDANCE OF BATTERY
MONITORING INDIVIDUAL CELLS
THERMAL MANAGEMENT
HYBRIDS USING ELECTROCHEMICAL STORAGE
FC/ELECTROCHEMICAL CAPACITOR HYBRID
BATTERY ELECTROCHEMICAL CAPACITOR HYBRID
TRIBRID, THE THREE-WAY HYBRID: FUEL CELL, HYDROGEN ICE, AND BATTERY HYBRID
MAPS BASED ON BATTERY ENERGY AND POWER
RELATION OF BATTERY TO OVERALL HYBRID
PLUG-IN EV OR EV: ADEQUATE POWER, LARGE ENERGY
HEV: HIGH PEAK POWER, SMALL ENERGY
FUEL CELLS
FUEL CELL: ELECTROCHEMISTRY
FUEL CELL: TYPES
FUEL CELL: CHARACTERISTICS
FUEL CELL: EFFICIENCY
FUEL CELL: APPLICATIONS
FUEL CELL: HYBRIDNESS
HYDROGEN PRODUCTION
REFORMING: HYDROGEN PRODUCTION
CAPACITORS
ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITORS (SCS)
FEATURES OF SCS
CHARGE/DISCHARGE EFFICIENCY
CHARACTERISTIC TIME CONSTANT
ENERGY STORED
COMPARISON OF LIFETIMES OR CYCLES OF OPERATION
ATTRACTIVENESS OF SC FOR TRUCKS AND BUSES
SOME ANALOGIES
SUMMARY
APPENDIX 6.1: ELECTROCHEMISTRY OF A VOLTAIC CELL AND FUEL CELL
INTRODUCTION
COMPONENTS OF A CELL
VOLTAGE DISTRIBUTION IN CELL AND EXTERNAL TO CELL
ELECTROLYSIS
ELECTROCHEMICAL POTENTIAL
ELECTROCHEMISTRY OF CELL (BATTERY)
LEAD ACID BATTERY
VOLTAGE AND POWER FROM A CELL
ELECTROCHEMISTRY OF FC
HYDROGEN/OXYGEN FC
APPENDIX 6.2: CAPACITORS
REFERENCES
Chapter 7. Obesity:Bad in Humans, Bad in Cars
INTRODUCTION
VEHICLE WEIGHT AND FUEL ECONOMY
FIRST PASSING COMMENT
SECOND PASSING COMMENT
HOW TO IMPROVE FUEL ECONOMY?
HOW TO DECREASE VEHICLE WEIGHT?
INTERPLAY: PRODUCTION LINES AND VEHICLE DESIGN
WEIGHT FACTORS AFFECTING FUEL ECONOMY
POWER AND FUEL CONSUMPTION
ROLLING RESISTANCE DUE MAINLY TO TIRES
POWER TO CLIMB GRADES
POWER FOR ACCELERATION
CORRELATION BETWEEN ACCELERATION AND FUEL ECONOMY
CORRELATION BETWEEN WEIGHT AND FUEL CONSUMPTION AT CRUISE
FUEL ECONOMY FOR CARS, TRUCKS, AND BOTH
WEIGHT AND PERFORMANCE
ENGINE EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENT TO MATCH WEIGHT GAIN
VEHICLE WEIGHT AND VEHICLE SAFETY
WEIGHT REDUCTION AND VEHICLE SAFETY
SEEMING PARADOX
ADDED COMMENTS ON ACCELERATION
ACCELERATION BASED ON CRUMPLE ZONES AND DRIVER MOTION
FRACTIONAL FORM FOR ACCELERATION BASED ON CRUMPLE ZONES AND DRIVER MOTION
VELOCITIES RELATIVE TO THE CG
COMPENSATION FOR THE DOUBLE ACCELERATION
COMPENSATION FOR REALISTIC WEIGHT DISPARITY
NHTSA ACTION
WEIGHT DISPARITY
EFFECT OF FOOTPRINT ON SAFETY
CO2 EMISSIONS VERSUS VEHICLE WEIGHT
SUMMARY
APPENDIX 7.1: MATHEMATICS OF FRACTIONAL CHANGE
APPENDIX 7.2: DERIVATION OF EQUATION 7.12
REFERENCES
Chapter 8. Vital Role of the Control System
HISTORY OF AUTOMOBILE CONTROL
EXAMPLE OF ENGINE CONTROLS FROM 1980S
FUNCTION OF CONTROL SYSTEM
ANALOGY WITH SYMPHONY ORCHESTRA CONDUCTOR
FRINGE BENEFITS OF CONTROL SYSTEM
SIMULATION AND MODELING
DESIGN SEQUENCE
ALGORITHM DEVELOPMENT
CONFLICT: FUEL ECONOMY AND EXHAUST EMISSIONS
EXHAUST EMISSIONS: ORIGIN OF POLLUTANTS
VARIOUS OPERATIONAL MODES TO BE CONTROLLED
ELEMENTS OF CONTROL THEORY
OVERVIEW OF CONTROL SYSTEM: CARTOON VERSION
OVERVIEW OF CONTROL SYSTEM: ECU VERSION
DESCRIPTIONS OF ECUs
HYBRID ECU
ENGINE ECU
M/G ECU
CVT ECU
POWER ELECTRONICS ECU
BATTERY ECU OR BATTERY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
AIR-CONDITIONING ECU
CONTROL AREA NETWORK
CONTROL VARIABLES: VARIABLES CONNECTING THE ECUS
ENGINE MANAGEMENT
EXHAUST GAS RECIRCULATION
ENGINE EFFICIENCY MAP
LOAD LEVELING
CONTROL COMPLEXITY AND DIFFICULTY
ADAPTIVE CONTROL STRATEGY
ROBUSTNESS OF CONTROL SYSTEM
FOUR CONTROL STRATEGIES
RULES-BASED CONTROL ALGORITHM
OPTIMIZATION
HARDWARE-CONSTRAINED OPTIMIZATION
FUZZY LOGIC CONTROL: WHAT IS IT?
FUZZY LOGIC CONTROL APPLICATION TO HYBRID CONTROL
NEURAL NETWORK CONTROL: WHAT IS IT?
NN CONTROL: APPLICATION TO HYBRID CONTROL
COMPARISON OF FUZZY LOGIC AND NNs
FOR CONTROL
COMBINED FUZZY LOGIC AND NNs FOR CONTROL
ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS: ELECTRICAL MOTORS AND GENERATORS
SUMMARY
REFERENCES
Chapter 9. Regenerative Braking
INTRODUCTION
FUNCTION OF REGENERATIVE BRAKING
INTEGRATION OF FUNCTIONS AND COMPONENTS
LOGIC RELATIVE TO SIZE OF REGENERATIVE BRAKES
BRAKES AND TIRES PRIMER
WHY DISCUSS TIRES?
SLIP, SLIDE, AND SKID
RELATION BETWEEN TIRE FORCE AND WEIGHT ON TIRE
WEIGHT ON EACH WHEEL
BRAKING “DIVE”: SHIFT OF WEIGHT TO FRONT TIRES
TIRE PATCH
LONGITUDINAL TIRE FORCES
LOCKED WHEELS
LATERAL TIRE FORCES
DIRECTIONAL STABILITY
ANTILOCK BRAKE SYSTEM
REGENERATIVE “COASTING”
ENERGY TO BE RECOVERED BY REGENERATIVE BRAKING
BANDS OF SOC FOR BATTERY
STOPPING DISTANCE
TIME AND STOPPING DISTANCE: FRICTION BRAKES
TIME AND STOPPING DISTANCE: REGENERATIVE BRAKES
EFFICIENCY OF REGENERATIVE BRAKING
TYPICAL DRIVING CYCLE
BRAKING FORCE FROM ELECTRICAL GENERATOR
TWO DESIGN APPROACHES FOR REGENERATIVE BRAKING
REGENERATIVE BRAKING INTEGRATED WITH CONVENTIONAL HYDRAULIC SYSTEM
DRIVER INPUT
BRAKE ACTUATOR
THREE-PORT SWITCH
CONTROLLER: INPUTS
CONTROLLER: OUTPUTS
M/G: GENERATOR MODE
SUMMARY
APPENDIX 9.1: EQUATIONS FOR REGENERATIVE AND FRICTION BRAKES
REGENERATIVE BRAKES
FRICTION BRAKES
REFERENCES
Chaper 10. Narrow Operating Band for Gasoline Engine
INTRODUCTION
DEMANDS OF DRIVING CYCLE
DRIVING CYCLE
ROADS
INTENSITY OF TRAFFIC
TERRAIN
ROAD QUALITY
WEATHER
MISSION OF VEHICLE: WIDESPREAD USAGE
MISSION OF VEHICLE: SPECIALTY
REAL-WORLD DATA
VARIABLES FOR DRIVING CYCLE
MINIMUM FUEL CONSUMPTION LINE
ENGINE MAP
SUPERIMPOSE ENGINE POWER CONTOURS
BASIC OPERATING LINE: MINIMUM FUEL CONSUMPTION

LINE
NARROW OPERATING BAND FOR GASOLINE ENGINE
MATCHING THE WHEELS TO THE ENGINE
EFFECT OF NUMBER OF TRANSMISSION SPEEDS ON FUEL ECONOMY
EFFECT OF NUMBER OF TRANSMISSION SPEEDS ON CONTROL OF ENGINE SPEED
ROLE OF ELECTRIC MOTOR IN A HYBRID
SUMMARY
REFERENCES
Chapter 11. Hybridness: A Basic Design Decision
DEFINITION OF HYBRIDNESS
STORY
HYBRID DESIGN PHILOSOPHY
HYBRIDNESS: PARALLEL HYBRID
HYBRIDNESS: SERIES, MIXED, AND RANGE EXTENDER (PLUG-IN) HYBRIDS
RANGE EXTENDER
OPTIMIZATION AND HYBRIDNESS
BATTERY POWER AND ELECTRIC MOTOR POWER
RESIDUAL PERFORMANCE WITH A “DEAD” BATTERY
EFFECT OF LOW CHARGE
POWER-TO-WEIGHT RATIO
INTERPRETATION OF RAMPS
VARIOUS TECHNIQUES TO ENHANCE HYBRID PERFORMANCE
START–STOP
DAMPING DRIVELINE OSCILLATIONS
VEHICLE LAUNCH
REGENERATIVE BRAKING
MOTOR ASSIST
ELECTRIC-ONLY PROPULSION
DOWNSIZE THE ENGINE
MILES PER GALLON GAIN
MILD OR MICRO HYBRID FEATURES
WHY IS H ABOUT 50% A GOOD SPOT FOR HIGH MILES PER GALLON?
PLUG-IN HYBRID
ALL-WHEEL DRIVE HYBRID
SUMMARY
APPENDIX 11.1: DERIVATION OF RANGE EXTENSION EQUATIONS
APPENDIX 11.2: RANGE OF A PLUG-IN HYBRID
REFERENCE
Chapter 12. Mileage Ratings
INTRODUCTION
MILEAGE RATINGS
INTRODUCTION
LITTLE HISTORY
PREVIOUS EPA MILEAGE ESTIMATES
WHAT CHANGES AND WHAT DOES NOT CHANGE?
FACTS CONCERNING MILEAGE RATINGS
DRIVING CYCLES
STANDARDIZED TEST PROCEDURES
VEHICLES EXEMPT FROM EPA MILEAGE STICKER
MILEAGE SHORTFALL
CONSEQUENCES OF MILEAGE SHORTFALL
EFFECTIVE $/GAL DUE TO SHORTFALL
DEFICIENCIES IN OLD AND NEW EPA METHODS
REVISED TESTS AND STANDARDS
EFFECTS OF AMBIENT TEMPERATURE
TESTING FOUR-WHEEL DRIVE
ROLLING FRICTION
AERODYNAMIC DRAG
VEHICLE LOAD
AGGRESSIVE DRIVING
DRIVING CYCLE
A/C AND AUXILIARIES
TERRAIN, CURVES, AND ALTITUDE
WEATHER
NEW EPA TESTS TO ESTIMATE MILEAGE
FIVE-CYCLE ESTIMATE: EPA-WEIGHTED COMBINATION OF TESTS
IMPORTANCE OF WEIGHTING FACTORS
CHANGE IN VOCABULARY: CITY AND HIGHWAY
TRANSITION PERIOD: 2008–2010
TESTING HYBRIDS
HYBRIDS AND THE NEW EPA TESTS TO ESTIMATE FUEL ECONOMY
HYBRID MODES OF OPERATION
DRIVING TECHNIQUE
REGENERATIVE BRAKING
BATTERY STATE OF CHARGE
HYBRIDS, BRAKING, AND THE PANIC STOP
CORPORATE AVERAGE FUEL ECONOMY
INTRODUCTION
MARKED INCONSISTENCY
DEFINITIONS FOR PASSENGER CARS AND TRUCKS
PASSENGER CAR STANDARDS
TRUCK STANDARDS: UNREFORMED SYSTEM
TRUCK STANDARDS: REFORMED SYSTEM
PENALTIES FOR FAILURE TO MEET CAFE STANDARDS
CAFE CREDITS
IMPORT FLEETS
SPECIAL RULES FOR ALTERNATE FUEL VEHICLES
CAFE EXEMPT VEHICLES
NATIONAL ACADEMIES’ NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL RECOMMENDATIONS
CAFE AND HYBRID TECHNOLOGY
GENERAL MOTORS VIEW ON 35 MPG CAFE STANDARD
HOW TO IMPROVE FUEL ECONOMY: TIPS FOR BETTER MILES/GALLON
DEBUNKING TIPS FOR BETTER MPG: WHAT IS A MYTH?
NEGATIVE MILES/GALLON
OVERVIEW OF ANALYSIS
FRACTIONAL CHANGE IN BRAKE-SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION, B
CONVENTIONAL VEHICLE
HYBRID VEHICLE
DRIVING TECHNIQUES
PRELIMINARIES
ENGINE BREAK-IN
STATISTICAL VARIATIONS IN VEHICLES
MOST EFFICIENT ENGINE OPERATING POINT
BUYING GASOLINE
BUY GAS IN THE COOL OF THE MORNING
BUY WHEN TANK IS ONE-FOURTH FULL
DO NOT OVERFILL TANK
DO NOT BUY PREMIUM FUEL
DIFFERENT BRANDS OF GASOLINE
DIFFERENT BRANDS OF GASOLINE: ETHANOL E85
CREDIT CARD REBATE
HOW FAR TO DRIVE TO SAVE A PENNY?
TEST ACCURACY
HOW MUCH GASOLINE IS USED FOR A TEST?
EPA TESTS
EPA: APPROPRIATE IMPLIED ACCURACY
PLAN AHEAD
AVOID UNNEEDED MILES
VEHICLE MAINTENANCE
KEEP A MILEAGE LOG
CHECK ENGINE LIGHT
TUNE-UP
ENGINE OIL VISCOSITY
PLUGGED AIR FILTER
WHEEL ALIGNMENT
WHEEL BALANCE
TIRE INFLATION
CHANGE IN TIRE PRESSURE WITH TEMPERATURE
TIRE PURCHASE AND CONSTRUCTION
TIRE PURCHASE AND CONSTRUCTION: SPEED RATING
ROLLING FRICTION COEFFICIENT: OTHER FACTORS: TEMPERATURE
ROLLING FRICTION COEFFICIENT: OTHER FACTORS: ASPECT RATIO
ROLLING FRICTION COEFFICIENT: OTHER FACTORS: VEHICLE VELOCITY
SNOW TIRES
AERODYNAMIC DRAG: WHEEL WELLS, HUBCAPS, AND WHEELS
GETTING BETTER MPG CRUISING ALONG THE INTERSTATE
INTRODUCTION
CRUISE CONTROL
STORY: OPTIMUM SPEED
OPTIMUM CRUISE SPEED
RESISTANCE TO VEHICLE MOTION: CROSSOVER VELOCITY
SPEEDING: IN CRUISE CONDITION
TAILGATING: BEHIND A TRUCK ON INTERSTATE
TAILGATING: ANALYSIS
TAILGATING: GOOD AND BAD
AGGRESSIVE DRIVING
FUEL ECONOMY METER (INSTANTANEOUS MPG)
AGGRESSIVE DRIVING: DEFINITION
AGGRESSIVE DRIVING VERSUS GENTLE DRIVING
AGGRESSIVE DRIVING: RAPID ACCELERATION
AGGRESSIVE DRIVING: RAPID ACCELERATION: NEGLECTING AERODYNAMIC DRAG
ANOTHER QUOTE
RECONCILE FUEL ECONOMY METER (INSTANTANEOUS MPG) AND PREVIOUS CONCLUSIONS
YET ANOTHER QUOTE
AGGRESSIVE BRAKING: BRAKING HARD
SPEEDING: IN ACCELERATION
VIRTUAL TEST TRACK
DRIVING TIPS
OVERDRIVE AND HIGHER GEARS WITH MANUAL TRANSMISSION
AERODYNAMIC DRAG: PICKUP TRUCK TAILGATE
AERODYNAMIC DRAG: SUNROOF
AERODYNAMIC DRAG: DEFORMATION OF CONVERTIBLE TOPS
AERODYNAMIC DRAG: ROOF RACK
BRAKE DRAG
REDUCE USE OF BRAKES
IDLING
IDLING: ENGINE-OFF IN CONVENTIONAL VEHICLE
IDLING: ENGINE-OFF IN HYBRID VEHICLE
POWER-HUNGRY ACCESSORIES AND AUXILIARIES
TWO-WHEEL AND FOUR-WHEEL DRIVE
EXTRA WEIGHT IN VEHICLE
ANTICIPATE TRAFFIC CONDITIONS
ANTICIPATE RED LIGHTS
TOWING A TRAILER
NEVER “REV-UP” THE ENGINE
AIR-CONDITIONING AND WINDOWS DOWN
AIR-CONDITIONING: BACKGROUND
AIR-CONDITIONING: EFFECTS OF HUMIDITY
AIR-CONDITIONING: CONTROL
AIR-CONDITIONING: ZONE AND RECIRCULATION
AIR-CONDITIONING: THERMOSTAT CONTROL
AIR-CONDITIONING: COLD MODULATED WITH HEAT
AIR-CONDITIONING: PURE COLD
AIR-CONDITIONING: REPORTED LOSSES
AIR-CONDITIONING: EQUATION FOR LOSS OF FUEL ECONOMY DUE TO A/C
AIR-CONDITIONING: SAMPLE CALCULATIONS FOR FUEL ECONOMY LOSS
AIR-CONDITIONING: 2005 CADILLAC STS
OPEN WINDOWS
OPEN WINDOW (SUNROOF) VENTILATION: COMMENTS
OPEN WINDOW VENTILATION: LOSS OF FUEL ECONOMY
A/C VERSUS OPEN WINDOWS
A/C VERSUS OPEN WINDOWS: SAMPLE CALCULATIONS
ANALYTICAL RESULT FOR VE
WHERE YOU DRIVE
HEADWIND AND TAILWIND
WARMING UP THE ENGINE
COLD AND HOT WEATHER
CURVES IN ROAD
ICE AND SNOW
HIGH ALTITUDE
TERRAIN: CLIMBING HILLS
DIRT AND GRAVEL ROADS
SNOW AND WATER PUDDLES ON ROAD
ROUGH AND UNDULATING ROADS
MILEAGE SCAMS
MILEAGE SCAMS: DETECTING SCAMS
MILEAGE SCAMS: CONSEQUENCES OF USING SCAM DEVICE
MILEAGE SCAMS: EPA TESTS
MILEAGE SCAMS: A PERSPECTIVE
MILEAGE SCAMS: UNSUBSTANTIATED CALCULATIONS
SUMMARY
APPENDIX 12.1: OPTIMUM CRUISE SPEED
APPENDIX 12.2: CAFE FLEET AVERAGE FUEL ECONOMY
AND VEHICLE AVERAGE
FLEET AVERAGE FUEL ECONOMY
VEHICLE AVERAGE
APPENDIX 12.3: CHANGE IN FUEL ECONOMY EPA ESTIMATES:
OLD VERSUS NEW TEST METHODS
REFERENCES
Chapter 13. Enhancing the Sales Brochure
INTRODUCTION
FUNCTION OF SALES BROCHURE: CONSUMER VIEWPOINT
FUNCTION OF SALES BROCHURE: CAR MANUFACTURER VIEWPOINT
HYBRID COMPONENTS
BATTERY
ELECTRICAL MOTOR/GENERATOR
GASOLINE (DIESEL) ENGINE
COMBINED ENGINE AND MOTOR TORQUE AND POWER
TRANSMISSIONS
ACCESSORIES AND AUXILIARIES
HYBRID SYSTEM
CONVERSION OR CLEAN SHEET DESIGN
CONVERSION OR CLEAN SHEET DESIGN: IMPACT ON AWD AND 4WD
REGENERATIVE BRAKING
HYBRID SYSTEM LAYOUT
HYBRIDNESS OR HYBRIDIZATION
PLUG-IN HYBRID
STARTING THE ENGINE
HYBRID PERFORMANCE
ELECTRIC-ONLY
FUEL ECONOMY DURING CRUISE
FUEL ECONOMY
PERFORMANCE WITH A “DEAD” BATTERY
MISCELLANEOUS
CROSSOVER VELOCITY
OPTIMUM CRUISE VELOCITY
INSTRUMENTATION AND DISPLAYS
SUMMARY
REFERENCE
Chapter 14. Torque Curves: A Match Made in Heaven
HISTORY OF ELECTRICAL ALTERNATORS, MOTORS,
AND GENERATORS IN AUTOMOBILES
FUNCTIONS OF THE MOTOR/GENERATOR
ORIGIN OF FORCES AND TORQUES
TYPES OF MOTORS AND/OR GENERATORS
PERMANENT MAGNETS
DEFINITIONS FOR MOTORS AND GENERATORS
SIMPLE DC MOTOR/GENERATOR
ROTATING MAGNETIC FIELD
DC BRUSHLESS MOTOR
ALTERNATOR
INDUCTION MOTOR AND ASYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR
SWITCHED RELUCTANCE MOTOR: STEPPING MOTOR
LOSSES AND MOTOR EFFICIENCY
COOLING
SELECTION OF M/G
DESIGN AND CONTROL ASPECTS
DESIRED AND ATTAINABLE TORQUE CURVE: MATCH MADE IN HEAVEN
SWITCHING FROM MOTOR TO GENERATOR AND VICE VERSA
2006 HONDA CIVIC TORQUE CURVES
2006 HONDA CIVIC HYBRID ELECTRIC MOTOR
ALTERNATE VIEW OF ELECTRIC MOTORS: TORQUE OR SPEED
SUMMARY
APPENDIX 14.1: MATCHING POLES FOR A SWITCHED RELUCTANCE MOTOR
REFERENCES
Chapter 15. Economics of Hybrid Ownership
INTRODUCTION
COSTS TO PRODUCE A HYBRID
TABLE FROM THE INTERNET
ECONOMICS OF BUS AND TRUCK
BASE MODEL VERSUS TOP-OF-THE-LINE
BENEFITS OF HYBRIDS
SUMMARY OF BENEFITS
PAY AT THE PUMP
PERSPECTIVE ON COST OF FUEL: PAY AT THE PUMP
FUEL COSTS
ANNUAL COST OF GASOLINE (DIESEL) FUEL
FUEL SAVINGS
ANNUAL FUEL SAVINGS EQUATION
COMBINED EPA MILEAGE RATINGS
REAL-WORLD FUEL ECONOMY AND MARKET REALITIES
MARGINAL SAVINGS: ONE MORE MILE PER GALLON
YEARS TO RECOUP
YEARS TO RECOUP PRICE PREMIUM
TAX SAVINGS
TAX CREDIT AND TAX DEDUCTION
STATE TAX CREDIT AND TAX DEDUCTION
GAS GUZZLER TAX
CAR POOL LANE PERMITS: TWO-TIER VALUE
COSTS
COSTS: ADDED COSTS AS A RESULT OF PRICE PREMIUM
COSTS (SAVINGS): MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR
COSTS: AUTOMOBILE INSURANCE
COSTS: DEPRECIATION TAKES EFFECT
COSTS: THE SHOWROOM SYNDROME
WHAT IS A MAJOR IMPROVEMENT?
COSTS: DEPRECIATION AND PACE OF TECHNOLOGY
COSTS: AMOUNT OF DEPRECIATION FOR VARIOUS VEHICLES
THREAT OF BATTERY REPLACEMENT
INTERPLAY HYBRID TECHNOLOGY AND PRICE PREMIUM
GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF PROFIT/LOSS AND REWARD/PENALTY
SUMMARY
APPENDIX 15.1: CLASSIFIED ADVERTISEMENT FOR TOYOTA PRIUS II
REFERENCES
Chapter 16. New Technologies: Hybrids
OVERVIEW
FACTORS AFFECTING NEW TECHNOLOGY
FACTORS AFFECTING NEW TECHNOLOGY: OVERALL ITEMS
ELUSIVE FUEL CELL
IMPACT OF EMISSION REQUIREMENTS: ZEV PROGRAM
INFRASTRUCTURE: CHARGING EV AND PLUG-IN HEV
INFRASTRUCTURE: HYDROGEN
IMPACT OF EMISSIONS REQUIREMENTS: INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE H2 POWERED
RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF ICE AND FUEL CELL: CREATION
HYDROGEN INFRASTRUCTURE
THREE GENERAL VEHICLES AND ASSOCIATED INFRASTRUCTURE
GENERALIZED HYBRID
SHARED COMPONENTS: FUEL CELL AND HEV
BIGGEST GAINS
BIGGEST GAINS: SAVING GASOLINE
MINING THE OBVIOUS: ENERGY STORAGE
BATTERIES
ULTRACAPACITOR OR SUPERCAPACITOR
FLYWHEEL
HYDRAULIC/PNEUMATIC
COMPRESSED AIR VEHICLE
SPIRAL SPRINGS
RUBBER TORSION SPRINGS
MINING THE OBVIOUS: OTHER HYBRID TECHNOLOGIES
INTEGRATION AND CONTROL
POWER ELECTRONICS
WHEEL MOTORS AND ELECTRICAL M/G
ENERGY CONVERSION
POWERTRAIN
SAVINGS FROM NEW TRANSMISSION
AUTOMATED MANUAL TRANSMISSION
STARTING THE ENGINE
SOLAR CELLS
INNOVATION: SEEKING THE NOVEL
MODULAR HYBRID UNITS
GENERATOR IN SHOCK ABSORBERS
GENERATOR DRIVEN BY EXHAUST TURBINE
FUEL-CELL/GAS-TURBINE HYBRID
FREE PISTON ENGINES
TRANSMOTOR: ROTATING ROTOR AND ROTATING STATOR
DIGITAL VERSUS ANALOG CONTROL
PHOTOSYNTHESIS AND OTHER BIOINSPIRED CHEMISTRY
COLD FUSION
MOTIVATION FOR NEW TECHNOLOGY
UNCERTAIN FUTURE
SUMMARY
APPENDIX 16.1: SAVING GASOLINE
REFERENCES
Chapter 17. New Technologies: Internal Combustion Engine
INTRODUCTION
WHAT AND WHERE ARE THE LOSSES?
TECHNOLOGY TO INCREASE EFFICIENCY
ADVANCED COMBUSTION: GAS AND DIESELS
STOP AND GO: WEAR AND TEAR
RECOVER THERMAL ENERGY DUMPED BY EXHAUST AND RADIATOR
RECOVER THERMAL ENERGY DUMPED BY POWER ELECTRONICS
VARIABLE VALVE TIMING AND VARIABLE VALVE LIFT
DIRECT INJECTION STRATIFIED CHARGE ENGINES
DUAL INJECTION
COMMENTS ON DIESELS
NEW TECHNOLOGY: DIESELS
PARTNERSHIP FOR A NEW GENERATION OF VEHICLES: SUPERCAR DIESEL ENGINES
CLEAN DIESEL FOR SUV: DOE PROGRAM
HEAVY TRUCK DIESELS
EXAMPLES OF NEW DESIGNS
CLOSING ALL VALVES
CYLINDER DEACTIVATION
ATKINSON CYCLE ENGINE
MILLER CYCLE
STIRLING CYCLE
ALVAR ENGINE
OFFSET CRANKSHAFT
FREE PISTON ENGINES
CONVERGENCE OF GAS AND DIESEL
ADVANCES IN MPG IN RECENT YEARS
HYBRID ENGINES
HCCI ENGINE
TURBOCHARGING AND/OR SUPERCHARGING
SIX-STROKE ENGINE
TRENDS IN MPG FOR GASOLINE AND DIESEL PROPULSION AND HEV
SUMMARY
APPENDIX 17.1: COMBUSTION PROCESSES IN ICE
GASOLINE ENGINES
DIESEL ENGINES
REFERENCES
Chapter 18. Hybrids: Mainstream or Fringe?
INTRODUCTION
DETERMINING FACTORS
DOMINANT FACTORS
OTHER FACTORS
REGULATION OF GREENHOUSE GAS
CONSUMER PERCEPTION OF GAS PRICES
ALTERNATE FUELS
UNCERTAINTY CONCERNING HYBRIDS
CORPORATE AVERAGE CO2 EMISSIONS
COMPETITION: HEV VERSUS GAS/DIESEL
COMPETITION TO THE HEV
FAVORABLE FACTORS FOR HEV
UNFAVORABLE FACTORS FOR HEV
FUTURE FOR HEV
TIME LAG: VEHICLE POPULATIONS
DISCUSSION OF FUTURE FOR HEV
HOME GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY
COMPETITION: HEV VERSUS FCV
FUEL CELL VEHICLE FUTURE
SUMMARY
REFERENCES
Chapter 19. Factors Influencing Resale Value
INTRODUCTION
COMMON FACTORS
WARRANTIES
RELIABILITY AND QUALITY
DESIRABILITY
UNDESIRABILITY
OPTIONS AND ACCESSORIES
DEPRECIATION
NEW CAR REBATES
MILEAGE AND VEHICLE CONDITION
RESALE FACTORS SPECIFIC TO HYBRIDS
BATTERY
WARRANTIES
AFTERMARKET MODIFICATIONS
FINGER IN THE DIKE: REPLACING INDIVIDUAL CELLS
DEPRECIATION AND PACE OF TECHNOLOGY
SUMMARY
Chapter 20. Dangers of Aftermarket Add-Ons
SERVICE AND REPAIR
PREVALENT BELIEFS CONCERNING HYBRIDS
TRAINING
SAFETY
SERVICE AND REPAIR OF HYBRIDS
REPAIR OF COLLISION DAMAGE
PERFORMANCE MODIFICATION
AVOID VOIDING THE WARRANTY
TRAINING
SAFETY
PERFORMANCE ENHANCEMENT
JUST MORE COMPUTERS
LOGIC ON COMPLEXITY OF HYBRID CONTROL
ADDING A SECOND GAS TANK
ADDING A SECOND BATTERY
MAKING A HOME FOR THE BATTERY
PAYLOAD PENALTY
PERFORMANCE AND HANDLING PENALTIES DUE TO ADDED BATTERY WEIGHT
PERFORMANCE PENALTY
OBESITY PENALTY DUE TO ADDED BATTERY WEIGHT
SUMMARY
Chapter 21. Safety Issues
OVERVIEW
WHAT ARE TODAY’S HAZARDS?
WHO HAS AN INTEREST IN HYBRID SAFETY?
RESCUE OF OCCUPANTS OF HYBRID IN A WRECK
AGENCIES INVOLVED IN RESCUE
RESCUE EQUIPMENT AND PROCEDURES
BUILT-IN SAFETY
SAFETY FOR FIRST RESPONDERS AND DURING DISMANTLING
BATTERY SAFETY SWITCH
WHAT ARE FUTURE HAZARDS?
HYDROGEN SAFETY
SUMMARY
APPENDIX 21.1: LITHIUM-ION BATTERY SAFETY*
LI-ION BATTERY PROTECTION IN HEV APPLICATION
CELL-LEVEL SAFETY DEVICES
OPENING (RUPTURE) LITHIUM-ION BATTERY
CAUSES OF BATTERY ACCIDENTS: TRIGGERS
TRIGGERS: OVERCHARGING OR OVERHEATING: STEPS TO POSSIBLE
DISASTER WITH CONVENTIONAL CELL CHEMISTRIES
TRIGGERS: INTERNAL SHORT CIRCUIT: PARTIAL OR TOTAL
POSITIVE ELECTRODE
NEGATIVE ELECTRODE
REFERENCES
Chapter 22. Future
INTRODUCTION
SUPPLY AND DEMAND
MITIGATION MEASURES
ASYMMETRIC RISK
WHAT NEEDS TO BE DONE?
WHO WILL PAY FOR IT?
INCREMENTAL COSTS OF MITIGATION
PAINLESS (ALMOST) MITIGATION MEASURES
INDICATOR FOR ALTERNATE FUELS
ABIOTIC OIL
URANIUM ARGUMENT
ALTERNATE FUELS: OVERVIEW
“FUEL” FOR TRANSPORTATION
SOME DEFINITIONS
PERSPECTIVE ON BIOFUELS
CARBON/HYDROGEN RATIO
ENERGY OUT/ENERGY IN
COAL
COAL RESOURCES
ALTERNATE FUELS: DETAILS
BIOMASS AND ALTERNATE FUELS
CELLULOSIC MATERIALS AND BIOFUELS
GRASSOLINE
MICROORGANISMS IN ALTERNATE FUELS
BIODIESEL FUEL
ALTERNATE FUELS: ETHANOL AS A FUEL
COLOR YELLOW
ENERGY CONTENT
COMBUSTION OF ETHANOL
WATER IN THE FUEL
EMISSIONS
COMPRESSION RATIO
FUEL COMPATIBILITY: CORROSION OF MATERIALS
COLD WEATHER OPERATION
FLAME ARRESTORS
DUAL-FUEL VEHICLES
TRANSPORTATION OF ETHANOL
ROCKET FUEL
CAN ETHANOL REPLACE GASOLINE?
ALTERNATE FUELS: MORE FUELS
METHANOL
NATURAL GAS
NATURAL GAS/HYDROGEN BLENDS
ELECTRICITY AS A FUEL
ALTERNATE FUELS: HYDROGEN AS A FUEL
HYDROGEN: FUEL OF THE FUTURE
HYDROGEN: FUEL OF THE PAST
CRITICAL MILESTONES
PRODUCTION OF HYDROGEN
HYDROGEN STORAGE
HYDROGEN STORAGE: CLATHRATE HYDRATES
ENERGY TO COMPRESS HYDROGEN
HYDROGEN INFRASTRUCTURE
SIMULTANEITY
COMPARISON WITH GASOLINE
PAST AND FUTURE
PAST: 1890–1950
FUTURE: 2000–2060
GASOLINE/DIESEL
PURE ELECTRIC
HYBRID
FUEL CELL VEHICLE
ALTERNATE FUEL, ICE
KIT CONVERSION CARS
SUMMARY
APPENDIX 22.1: PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FUELS
REFERENCES
Appendix A: Acronyms and Relevant Data
ACRONYMS
Appendix B: Global Warming
REFERENCE
Index
CONVERSION FACTORS
Back cover
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